Nobiltà Araldica

Italian Titles of Nobility and Genealogical Research

by L. Mendola ©

This authorative collection of articles is gratefully reproduced for ease of reference from the website of the Italian Genealogical and Heraldic Institute.

For further information and details of services provided by the Italian Genealogical and Heraldic Institute,

Index

Genealogical Research Conditions in Italy

How to Determine Ancestral Nobility from Italian Genealogical Records

Italian Heraldry, Nobility, Onomatology and Genealogy

Italian Titles of Nobility: History

Italian Titles of Nobility: Introduction

Italian Titles of Nobility: Titles and Ranks

Medieval Genealogical Research in Italy

Italian Titles of Nobility

Introduction

Until 1948, the Consulta Araldica (College of Arms) governed heraldic matters in the Kingdom of Italy. Based first at Turin and later at Rome, this agency was part of the Ministry of the Interior. Italian heraldic law was rather complex --full of regulations and other provisions attempting to preserve certain heraldic practices of the realms which had existed in Italy before 1860. Indeed, various regional heraldic commissions had spent decades to ensure that the entrenched nobilities of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal State, and the grand duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, as well as certain formerly Austrian territories, would not be unduly offended by the body of heraldic law of the newly-unified Italy.

In general, heretofore unrecognised noble families, whether titled or not, were required by law to petition --however informally-- for recognition of their ranks or titles by the Crown if such was desired. The names of the heads of these families were inscribed in the Libro d'Oro della Nobiltà Italiana, a series of large, handwritten registers maintained at the offices of the Consulta Araldica. (This should not be confused with the Libro d'Oro published by the Collegio Araldico today; the Collegio Araldico is a private heraldic society, not a governmental entity, and its Libro d'Oro, though reasonably reliable, includes many fantastic histories and, particularly in cases of alleged untitled nobility, dubious claims to aristocratic lineage.)

In general, although the terms of decrees of creation issued prior to 1860 were respected, general regulations were instituted to establish national norms based on the Sardinian (Savoyard) model. While a few titles devolved to heirs male general, titles the subject of new creations were stipulated to be transmitted by legitimate male primogeniture. In certain realms, such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, female succession had been permitted in cases where male heirs were lacking, and this policy was abrogated. Transmission of titles to adopted children required royal rescript in most cases.

The last Italian monarch, King Umberto II (1904-1983), was deposed by popular referendum in 1946. Though its results have been disputed, at least in certain quarters (particularly by fervent monarchists and by several Italian regional courts), this referendum (remarkably, the first occasion for Italian women to vote) was held under American auspices during the Allied occupation and established the Italian Republic as a legitimate state recognised internationally and, eventually, by all of the former ruling dynasties, the Vatican, the Republic of San Marino and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

Article 139 of the Constitution of the Italian Republic codifies the exile of the King of Italy and his male heirs, a provision being abrogated only fifty years later. It also abolishes the Consulta Araldica and official recognition of predicati (territorial designations or "seats") if recognised during the Fascist era (i.e. after 28 October 1922). Subsequently, these designations could be suffixed to surnames as a result of particular petitions to provincial courts having jurisdiction in such matters. Eventually, Italian high courts would issue still more rulings to attenuate the status even of those titles recognised until 1922, but local courts would uphold the rights to identity of titled aristocrats in cases where impostors claimed the titles and territorial designations of living persons whose immediate forebears had been recognised by the Consulta Araldica before 1922.

The Italian Republic's recognition (for cultural purposes) of royal dynasties other than the House of Savoy served to bolster a return of adherence to nobiliary laws as these had existed before 1860. The dynasties of the Two Sicilies and Tuscany naturally recognise their own heraldic norms, rather than those of the House of Savoy. The two orders of knighthood (Order of Malta and Constantinian Order of St. George of the Two Sicilies) that recognise ancestral nobility for certain knights employ their own nobiliary standards, which in a few respects differ from those employed in the Savoy dominions in recent centuries.

Recent decades have witnessed an increasingly widespread interest in coats of arms and titles of nobility, especially among Italian descendants abroad, many of whom have been deceived by heraldic or genealogical research firms (some, ironically, operated by noble families) into believing themselves to be armigerous or even titled.

History

As recently as the eleventh century, the sovereign rulers of vast regions --Savoy in the north and Sicily in the south-- were known by the simple title of count. Until around 1300, titles of nobility were hardly necessary as indications of high birth because aristocrats bore surnames, while the common people were known only by given names. At this early date, aristocratic surnames were usually toponymic, based upon the name of the family's fief (di Grosseto, di Noto, etc.). This has led some to believe that there exists in Italian a surname prefix or other onomastic characteristic, akin to the German von, which indicates nobility. This is not true, nor do double-barrelled surnames indicate aristocratic origins; most often, a dual surname simply indicates that numerous families in the same town bore the same surname and eventually required differentiation to distinguish among themselves. As mentioned above, a nobleman's name sometimes includes a predicato, though not a title. Thus, Giuseppe Lanza, Prince of Trabia bears the surname Lanza di Trabia, rather than simply Lanza (a common surname), on legal documents. So great were the differences between the rulers and the ruled in medieval Italy that a common man would not think to impersonate a knight or lord, although this has certainly changed.

The majority of feudatories were simply signori (from the French seigneur, a title introduced into Italy by the eleventh-century Normans), vassali (vassals) or cavalieri (knights). Eventually, this class came to be known collectively as the baroni (barons), as in Italy barone was not always a title descriptive of a particular feudal rank. During the fourteenth century, most minor feudal lands became baronies, their holders barons. It must be observed that the use of these titles usually required some form of sovereign sanction or feudal tenure.

Though they had been used rarely, titles of nobility had certainly existed before circa 1300, but these were usually military ranks and not hereditary. During the fourteenth century, nobiliary titles became hereditary in most of Italy, usually transmitted by male primogeniture and almost invariably linked to land.

Under the Longobards and their residual civilization (the Lombards) in Italy, a fief might devolve to heirs male general of the feudatory, which is to say, to all of his legitimate sons. Yet, this was not a uniform or universal practice. With the Norman influence, Frankish law, dictating male primogeniture as a means of feudal succession, supplanted the Longobard norm in most of Italy. With very few exceptions, Italian titles are inherited only by eldest sons.

By tradition, certain peerages, usually dukedoms, are vested in the persons of royal princes. The Head of the Royal House of Italy, though a royal prince, is the Duke of Savoy. The Head of the Royal House of the Two Sicilies, also a royal prince, is the Duke of Castro. These titles are analogous to the royal dukedoms (York, Kent, Windsor, etc.) accorded to members of the British Royal Family.

There was a time, until 1812 in some regions, when the purchase of land designated "feudal" ennobled the buyer ipso facto; the purchaser of a comital fief (a county) thus became a count. This practice ceased with the abolition of feudalism. (Serfdom, a feudal institution, was abolished in Italy during the Middle Ages.) A number of families still own portions of their traditional feudal holdings, but feudal rights and prerogatives of any kind were finally abrogated by the time that Italy was united in 1870. Although most Italian titles are attached to nominal "seats" (territorial designations), usually the names of fiefs or dimore, the ranks and titles are incorporeal. That is to say that, like an idea, name or copyright, the titles constitute a form of intangible property, but property nonetheless. In fact, this is true of nobiliary titles in most nations; the Duke of Westminster, for example, would retain his ancestral title even if he had no actual property in the dukedom of Westminster.

In the Kingdom of Italy, titles of nobility did not accord their holders parliamentary seats or, indeed, any particularly noteworthy privileges save for some purely heraldic (armorial) ones, such as the legal use of a title and coat of arms and precedence at the Royal Court. The principle that the person of a peer was inviolable was not applied in nineteenth-centuruy Italian law, for it did not exist. That a titled nobleman ("pari" or "peer" in common parlance) might enjoy freedom from attachment was likewise an unknown right.

One reason for this is that with the introduction of liberal Savoyard (Piedmontese) law throughout most of Italy by 1870, the Neapolitan and Papal attitudes toward the rights of the nobility had already begun to disappear, and in the event were no longer supported by statute.

Titles and Ranks

Principe, Principessa. (Prince, Princess). From the Latin princeps, meaning first, this is the highest Italian title of nobility, and also the title accorded members of the royal families. Many of Italy's noble princes, particularly in northern regions, are princes "of the Holy Roman Empire," and lack feudal territorial designations attached to their titles. Some southern princes descend from the most ancient medieval feudatories. In most cases, the holder of a princely title in Italy is the descendant of forebears who in antiquity were barons or counts, the family having been elevated through the nobiliary ranks over the centuries. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, princes were addressed most formally as "Your Excellency," a form of address that may be compared, in this instance, to the British use of "Your Grace" for a duke or duchess. The wife of a prince is a princess. The younger son of a prince, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei principi di (seat), namely a "noble of the princes of" some place. Use of the honorific appellations don (lord) and donna (lady) for the son and daughter of a prince is obsolete except in formal documents issued by institutions that recognize Italian titular nobility. Princes and their consorts are most formally addressed verbally by title and territorial designation. The heraldic coronet of a noble prince is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by four visible pearls between five visible strawberry leaves. In most representations, the deep red tasselled cap is not rendered within the coronet.

Duca, Duchessa. (Duke, Duchess). Derived from the Latin dux, a military leader, this title originally was reserved to the sovereign rulers of important territories, such as the Duchy of Spoleto. Like princedoms, dukedoms are sometimes borne by peers whose early medieval forebears were barons, enfeoffed knights or other feudatories. Like princes, dukes were formerly accorded the address "Your Excellency." The younger son of a duke, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei duchi di (seat), namely a "noble of the dukes of" some place. Dukes and their consorts are most formally addressed verbally by title and territorial designation. The heraldic coronet of a duke is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by five visible strawberry leaves. Usually, the crimson tasselled cap is not rendered within the coronet.

Marchese, Marchesa. (Marquess, Marchioness). The term derives from the Old Italian marchio, referring to the man charged with guarding a march, or border territory, and the French marquis shares the same origin. The Marches region, which borders Umbria, is so-called because it was once such a territory. Some attribute the origin of this word to the Middle Latin marchisus, a prefect. Most marquessates are of modern foundation; one reads of few marchesi before the fifteenth century, and the title is quite rare even today. The younger son of a marquess, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei marchesi di (seat), namely a "noble of the marquesses of" some place. Marquesses and their consorts are most formally addressed verbally by title and surname; since in Italy a woman usually continues to use her own father's surname even after marriage, a marchesa may bear a surname other than her husband's. The heraldic coronet of a marquess is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by three visible strawberry leaves, the central leaf flanked by two rows of three pearls each, supported by stems or set directly upon the rim.

Conte, Contessa. (Count, Countess). The word traces its origin from the Latin comes, for military companion. Comital territories were large in the eleventh century, but virtually indistinguishable from baronies by the fourteenth. For purposes of precedence, there is no contemporary distinction between a feudal count and a count palatine; the latter was usually a court officer who lacked a territorial designation attached to his title. It is noteworthy that conte is one of the few Italian titles sometimes, though rarely, inherited by all heirs male, depending on the terms set forth in the patent of creation. The younger son of a count, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei conti di (seat), namely a "noble of the counts of" some place. Counts and their consorts are most formally addressed verbally by title and surname. Counts palatine were created by certain sovereigns and by the Popes and usually bore no territorial designations attached to their surnames The heraldic coronet of a count is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by nine visible pearls, supported by stems or set directly upon the rim.

Visconte, Viscontessa. (Viscount, Viscontess). Originally vice comes, for the attendant of a count, this is the rarest of the modern Italian peerage titles, almost unknown in some regions. The younger son of a viscount, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei visconti di (seat), namely a noble of the viscounts" of some place. The standard crest coronet of a viscount is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by five visible pearls, the middle and outer ones supported by stems, the remaining two rendered in a smaller diameter and set directly upon the rim.

Barone, Baronessa. (Baron, Baroness). The title is probably of Germanic origin; the Latin root baro referred to a simpleton, but by the Middle Ages baronis was a title of nobility or, more often, a nobiliary rank employed in reference to holders of feudal property. Most seigneuries (see below) were eventually elevated to baronies. In the South, the most important medieval baronies were elevated to princedoms or dukedoms by the eighteenth century. Though often employed loosely in the remote past, the title barone was by 1800 established to be a creation or recognition resulting from royal prerogative, not an honorific privilege to be appropriated by any wealthy landholder. Heraldic regulation in the Kingdom of Italy further established that the sons of barons could no longer appropriate cavaliere as a courtesy title. Barone is the most frequent of the modern Italian peerage titles. The younger son of a baron, and the heir before succession to the title, is a nobile dei baroni di (seat), namely a noble of the barons of" some place. The standard heraldic coronet of a baron is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by seven pearls, supported by stems or placed directly upon the rim.

Signore (seigneur). Originally a feudal lord, the title was introduced into Italy by the Franks and Normans. Formerly a minor peerage, the title is rarely used today because most signori bear greater titles by which they are commonly known, and because, in common parlance, signore has come to mean "Mister." It may, albeit in an abstract sense, be compared to such ancient titles as mor, esquire or manorial lord. Seigneuries were feudal lands, similar to baronies, appertaining to certain lords, either as sub-fiefs attached to baronies or, more often, depending from the Crown directly. A signore might therefore owe fealty to a baron or directly to the king. This is the lowest title which carries a seat. As these noblemen bear a title which is no longer in use, though still mentioned in peerage directories, no particular crest coronet is displayed for this rank. In practice, a signore may display the coronet of an untitled nobleman (see below).

Patrizio (Patrician). The term obviously derives from that used to describe the aristocratic class of ancient Rome. A patrizio is said to be "of" a certain place, such as Venice or Florence, without it being his feudal seat, just as an American might be "of New York." The rank is normally transmitted to heirs male general. According to legislation enacted by the Consulta Araldica, there is no feminine, but the daughter of a patrizio might be said to be dei patrizi [surname], namely "of the patricians [surname]. Patrizio is also the translation of Patrick; Patrizia is Patricia but is never used as a title. The crest coronet of a patrician is a simple jewelled circlet of gold.

Nobile (Untitled Nobleman). In the Dark Ages, local leaders known to their people were nobiliti, from the Latin nobilitas, meaning, appropriately, "known." The rank denotes some, but not all, aristocratic Italian families which lack titles. This class may be compared to the landed gentry of Great Britain. There are, strictly speaking, two kinds of nobili-the younger sons of peers and male members of the aforementioned noble families in which there have never been titles. The crest coronet of a nobile is a jewelled circlet of gold surmounted by five pearls, supported by stems or set directly upon the rim.

Cavaliere Ereditario (Hereditary Knight Bachelor). This rank, usually transmitted by male primogeniture but sometimes to heirs male general, is quite similar to a British baronetcy but much older. However, it does not, as is commonly believed, have any direct connection to the medieval rank of the enfeoffed knight. Most cavalieri ereditari descend from the younger sons of peers or from historically untitled families ennobled with this form of knighthood in the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries in Sicily, Sardinia and some parts of mainland Italy. Writing in 1925, Francesco San Martino de Spucches speculated that, at least in theory, hundreds of Sicilians entitled to no other hereditary honour could lawfully succeed to particular hereditary knighthoods which were long-dormant for lack of claimants.

Certain contents of this article have appeared previously in The Coat of Arms (journal of the Heraldry Society, London), the Journal of the Orders and Medals Research Society (London), the New Zealand Armiger, and the Commonwealth Heraldry Bulletin.

©1997 L. Mendola

Italian Heraldry, Nobility, Onomatology and Genealogy

Very few works have been published in English on the topics of Italian heraldry, nobility and onomatology as these relate to genealogy. Yet, all three fields depend upon genealogical research. This concise presentation is not intended as a historical treatise, but rather as a simple guide for those interested in these subjects.

In common parlance, heraldry (araldica) refers to the study of coats of arms. Historically, the term referred to the functions of heralds, royal court officers responsible for maintaining records of coats of arms and Error! Bookmark not defined. Although such officers are still attached to royal households in the United Kingdom and Spain, the Italian monarchy came to an end in 1946. Titles of nobility and coats of arms are not recognized officially by the government of the Italian Republic (although some court rulings have defended the rights of descendants of actual noblemen against the actions of impostors), but neither is their use illegal. A few private organizations in Italy recognize nobiliary titles --the Corpo della Nobiltà Italiana and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta being the best known today. (Such recognition requires extensive genealogical proof of patrilineal nobility.) It may also be observed that nobility is generally recognized by Italians as a sign of gentility --with the old aristocracy still constituting Europe's uppermost social class.

In the middle of the twelfth century, during the Norman rule of much of Italy, coats of arms developed as distinctive insignia painted on the shields of knights and other noblemen. In combat, friend and foe could identify the fully armored knight, whose face was concealed by a helmet, according to the colorful design on his decorated shield. The same design appeared on his surcoat-hence the term "coat of arms." With time, the rights to use certain designs (blazons), as well as feudal titles (i.e. count, baron, etc.), passed from father to son. Since these insignia and titles are the incorporeal property of particular families, it is obvious that unrelated families which by mere coincidence share their surnames (whether Ferraro, Rosso, Smith or Jones) cannot claim these coats of arms or titles of nobility as their own. To do so would be like Mr. Johnson of Wales claiming the estate of the late Mr. Johnson of New York simply because he happens to have the same surname.

The hereditary nature of coats of arms and titles of nobility is readily apparent if their historical development is considered. So closely linked is heraldry to genealogy that the Italian word for a coat of arms, stemma, is the Latin for "family tree."

In most countries, including Italy, a coat of arms is an indication of nobility, which may be defined as hereditary aristocracy. Genealogical research is the only means of demonstrating whether a family descends from the nobility.

Unfortunately, there exist in Italy and elsewhere various firms, some of which conduct genealogical research, that have deceived thousands of clients into believing themselves to be in genuine possession of coats of arms or even titles of nobility. To bolster the credibility of such fraud, these agencies, including two well known genealogical institutes in Florence, cite historical sources and sometimes attach familial lineages to their wares. Replete with ornate seals and signatures, these seemingly "official" documents provide the customer with little more than a fantasy-often at the cost of hundreds of dollars or pounds.

The majority of Italians who believe themselves entitled to coats of arms are victims of such fraud. It never occurs to them that fewer than one out of a hundred Italian families can legitimately claim a coat of arms. Honorable ancestors who worked as farm workers --perhaps without the benefit of literacy-- were not aristocrats entitled to coats of arms. Since titles of nobility and coats of arms are not accorded governmental recognition in Italy, the fraudulent sale of these wares is not, strictly speaking, against the law unless copyright infringement can be proven in the case of a particular design. In many cases, those in possession of such items are the children or grandchildren of the deceived, since some vendors of fraudulent heraldry have been in business for generations! While about a dozen of these firms flourish in Italy, many more are based in the United States, Great Britain, Australia and elsewhere, and sell these items to any European descendant. Some market entire selections of heraldic merchandise-ranging from signet rings to letterhead paper to plaques and "parchment paintings" generated by computer. For the most part, the services of such firms serve merely to bolster the egos of individuals who would like to believe that their patrilineal ancestors were aristocrats, even though they may not have been. Would a genuine aristocrat seek the services of such a firm? Probably not.

Some family historians appropriate for themselves (or their ancestors) coats of arms or aristocratic lineages drawn from references discovered in public libraries. The researcher probably shares no more than a surname with the famous family whose history he has claimed. Thousands of ordinary families coincidentally bear such famous surnames as Medici, Este, Grimaldi, Visconti and Savoia, having no kinship whatsoever to the ancient dynasties which also bear these names.

Another fraudulent practice related to family history is the generic onomastic report. Onomatology, the study of proper name origins, must be approached with caution. Any native speaker of Italian knows that Ferraro derives from the word for blacksmith, and that Rosso meant redhead; the origins of toponymic names (Veneziano, Calabrese, Milano) seem equally obvious. However, the origin of a less frequent surname may depend greatly upon the dialect of the region in which the family originated. In other words, the same surname might have a particular derivation in Sicily, but another root in Piedmont. Unless the researcher knows the regional origin of the family, he might attribute the Piedmontese etymology to the Sicilian surname, or vice versa. Because Piedmontese is as distinct from Sicilian as Romanian is from French, onomatologies can vary considerably. While onomastic research is more likely to be accurate when the family's region of origin is known, most firms conduct such research without this knowledge. Furthermore, onomatologies attributed to certain surnames by some authors are flawed.

Onomastic conclusions are often in error where patronymic surnames are concerned. The surname Di Cesere, for example, derives from the ancient Latin root Caesar, but this etymology has little to do with the familial use of this name in Italy today. In actuality, the Italian families who bear this surname descend from medieval ancestors who bore Cesare as a given name, having no descent from the Julian emperors of ancient Rome. By way of analogy, not every Frenchman named Louis descends from the Bourbon kings of France

Nevertheless, some onomastic reports purchased from "research" firms are reasonably accurate, even if the typical customer has no way of knowing so.

The accuracy of heraldic, nobiliary and onomastic knowledge depends upon genealogy; objective interpretation of these topics can spell the difference between real family history and fanciful family folklore.

©1996 L. Mendola

How to Determine Ancestral Nobility from Italian Genealogical Records

This concise historical presentation is intended not as an exhaustive sociological treatise, but as a general introduction for the layman. (It is presumed that the reader has already reviewed the circular Error! Bookmark not defined.) Because of the highly individual nature of genealogical and heraldic projects, many of the following observations are necessarily generalities.

Italian nobiliary practices cannot be compared directly to those of other countries, such as Scotland or Russia. Even within Italy, regional differences must be considered because until circa 1870 the nation did not exist as a politically unified state.

The Italian Republic was founded by popular referendum in 1946. Two years later, the Italian Constitution established that titles of nobility and coats of arms henceforth were not to be recognized officially by the state, although in some cases the predicato (territorial designation) associated with a titled family could be legally attached to a surname. Thus, the Lanza family, princes of Trabia, are no longer addressed in legal documents (passports, etc.) by the title principe (prince), but their full surname is Lanza di Trabia, not simply "Lanza." It is important to observe that the use of aristocratic titles in Italy is in no way outlawed, and historical titles are often used socially, with the titles of cavaliere (knight) and dama (dame) recognized in some cases. A consequence of the lack of governmental recognition of titles in Italy is the proliferation of impostors-people who claim, or even bestow, fraudulent or usurped titles.

While there exist no means to petition for "official" recognition of Italian noble titles or coats of arms, some private organizations, such as those associated with the former ruling dynasties, continue to recognize these.

The greater titles of nobility are Principe (Noble Prince), Duca (Duke), Marchese (Marquess), Conte (Count), Visconte (Viscount) and Barone (Baron). The wife or widow of one of these noblemen is styled by the feminine version of her husband's title -Principessa, Duchessa, Marchesa, Contessa, Viscontessa, Baronessa, et al. In former times, the son of a titled nobleman was occasionally addressed by courtesy by his father's title. The minor titles of nobility are Patrizio (Patrician), Nobile (Nobleman) and Cavaliere Ereditario (Hereditary Knight Bachelor). These titles are described at length Error! Bookmark not defined.

The historical evidence of an ancestor's nobiliary title is usually obvious and can be confirmed through juridical investigation because of documents creating or recognizing the rank. It is necessary to establish (genealogically) one's descent from a titled nobleman claimed as an ancestor-whether a father or great-great-grandfather-if a claim is to be based upon demonstrable fact rather than whimsical fancy or familial "tradition."

At all events, it is essential that one comprehend the genealogical nature of proofs of nobility. If one believes that a remote ancestor was a count, but possesses no juridical confirmation, historical evidence or genealogical proof of this, it remains a mere allegation based upon hearsay or fantasy. It is impossible to make a nobiliary claim in the absence of factual genealogy. Indeed, no reputable heraldist or genealogist would even consider reviewing an allegation of noble ancestry if a proven genealogy were not submitted with such an assertion.

The former use of certain titles (particularly baron) without authority must be considered in some cases because rural families of untitled nobility were often identified as "baronial" in the absence of feudal rights or recognition by the Crown.

Nobile is the most frequent aristocratic rank in Italy because, in addition to families that were never actually titled, the younger sons (cadets) of titled noblemen were traditionally regarded as nobili. Thus one encounters such usage as, for example, Giuseppe Lanza dei Principi di Trabia (Giuseppe Lanza of the Princes of Trabia). In addition to those whose untitled nobility was recognized formally, there were families of rural gentility that were considered by tradition to be of untitled minor nobility --an Italian class analogous to Britain's landed gentry. Establishing the nobiliary status of such families depends upon various factors and is essentially twofold.

Firstly, documentary evidence must indicate that several ancestors in the same line were accorded honorific forms of address (Magnifico, Illustrissimo, don) in civil or church records before the nineteenth century. Such designations were applied rather loosely in centuries past-especially in rural localities, where any literate tradesman might be addressed as "don." While most local officials or wealthy landholders could not claim nobility, the use of such titles does serve to support the possibility of nobility in some cases.

Secondly, associated heraldic evidence must exist. The family must have been attributed a coat of arms that appertained to that family in particular, not to another in the same region which coincidentally bore the same surname. The coat of arms might be found as the engraving on an ancestral residence or the seal in a document. Perhaps it was recorded in a heraldic reference which mentions a proven (and legitimate) ancestor.

Circumstantial evidence is important, but it can be misleading. For example, one might conclude that local residents who share the surname of the local duke are his kin, and therefore nobles. Documentary research, however, might well demonstrate the contrary-for they might descend from the ducal family's servants. This was the case in the Sicilian town of Castelbuono, where dozens of families bore the surname Ventimiglia even though they had no kinship to the family of that name which resided in the local castle.

Anecdotes are rarely accurate or demonstrable. A frequent story is that of an ancestor's having been the illegitimate child of a local nobleman. Typically, the child was born to an unwed mother whose family subsequently sought to salvage her dignity by alleging aristocratic paternity. It is usually impossible to prove this.

©1997 L. Mendola

Medieval Genealogical Research in Italy

The typical Italian lineage dates from circa 1600, and for most of us that's reasonably profound. But who wants to be "typical" when you might be able to trace a lineage into the 1500s or even into the Middle Ages? Because success in this field requires practice and perseverance, as well as skills more specialized than those needed to perform research in modern records, very few genealogists are involved in medieval research. However, even the genealogist who does not engage in medieval projects can benefit from knowing how it is pursued. Here's a general guide.

The most important factor to consider in the development of profound lineages is the availability of records. In many instances, the records that would facilitate such extensive pedigrees simply don't exist. In other cases, however, these records exist and may even be accessible, but first you have to know what you're looking for and how to interpret it once you've found it.

In general, source records available to the researcher tracing a lineage for the period before circa 1500 are not the same as those one consults for more modern and contemporary projects. Since genealogists usually start nearer the present and work backwards, let's consider sixteenth-century records and methods first. A lineage from circa 1700 to circa 1500 is established with parochial records (primarily acts of baptism, marriage and death, the church census record known as the stato delle anime and perhaps a few records of confirmations or offerings) and the occasional census (catasto or rivello), notary or military record. For the period before 1500 there are rarely any parochial records preserved, although, contrary to popular belief, these were kept in some parishes prior to the Council of Trent (1545). Likewise, there are very few census records preserved from the sixteenth century.

If the records consulted for medieval genealogical projects differ considerably from those employed in modern research projects, it is logical that research strategy itself will differ somewhat. This is worth explaining before we proceed. Modern research is essentially methodical in nature because most of the records consulted are "statistical." This kind of research might be said to be "quantitative." This is not to imply that insight and strategy do not play a role in modern research; they certainly do. However, a search through lists or registers is not overwhelmingly difficult for the trained genealogist if he can comprehend old Italian or, in some instances, Latin or a local dialect. Research in medieval sources may be said to be "qualitative," and often provides sketchier ancestral information requiring greater conjectural and contextual knowledge because it does not usually lead to the precise generation-by-generation lineages constructed in modern research projects. One might instead discover a probable remote forebear without establishing his precise line of ascent from a more recent one. It is here that circumstantial evidence plays a greater role than in the research of most modern lineages, but this should not be construed to imply that speculation is the order of the day; historical and sociological knowledge are essential if any degree of accuracy is to be achieved.

The genealogist, for example, may have to conduct a survey to determine the approximate statistical frequency (number) of persons bearing a certain surname in a particular locality in the sixteenth century in order to determine the likelihood of a connection between one of these persons and a person bearing the same surname in the same locality a century earlier.

Medieval records present far greater challenges even to the most astute genealogical scholars. A particular aspect of this research to be aware of is that, by and large, it relates to aristocratic families rather than ordinary ones. However, this does not always imply nobility per se. While many people entertain the perception of noble families as being 'ancient" ones, the simple fact is that most titled families known to us today became ennobled (titled) not during the Middle Ages but in the modern era (i.e. after 1500). Many families of the minor (untitled) aristocracy that flourished before 1500 were important enough to figure in local events during the late medieval period, even though their descendants may have been less prominent during the course of latter centuries. (This is true not only of the untitled aristocracy of what is now Italy, but of the landed gentry of England and the sczlachta of Poland as well.)

An example of this social development is the Scannapieco family, which by 1700 was prominent enough to be listed among the noble families of Nocera, even though they were never titled and therefore were not to be found in standard heraldic armorials. Following lengthy modern research, consultation of the archive of the nearby Abbey of Cava dé Tirreni led to discovery of a manuscript of 1118 describing a land grant made to the Church by a man referred to as "Scannapecus" who was probably a forebear of the Scannapieco family resident in the area today. One observes that there were few references in these records to the titled families that were prominent in the region in more recent times.

Medieval records fall into numerous categories, a few of which we'll describe here.

Monastic or other church records of offerings, land donations and other transactions (sometimes referred to as "tabulations") are preserved in various archives. In some cases, particularly when the abbey itself no longer exists, these may have been deposited with the provincial archive of state or, if the monastery was in the former Papal State, perhaps in the Vatican Apostolic Archive. In general, such records date from the Longobard and Norman rule of Italy around the eleventh century, and may refer to local events considered noteworthy, mentioning local persons.

Medieval notarial records of such matters as land transfers or wills may be available for some localities. As with modern records of this type, acts are catalogued, if at all, by the name of the notary, who might have notarized an act in any one of various localities. This means that there is no clear initial indication of which notary might have notarized a particular act, since jurisdictions were not very localized.

Feudal records typically relate to taxes rendered to the Crown or levied by feudatories, or rents collected from land tenants. There also exist certain rolls which list feudatories and their military or economic service rendered to the Crown, as well as rolls of knights, archers, armorers, et al.

Heraldic records usually do not relate to coats of arms, but to such matters as petition for entry into the Order of Malta, which required genealogical proof of nobility. In such petitions, one might discover a medieval pedigree.

Royal, ministerial or episcopal decrees and circulars and chronicles sometimes mention certain individuals and their role in particular events.

Geographical and agricultural records may provide information that could indicate emigration patterns and lifestyles. Good or bad harvests, drought, war and other factors can be considered in this manner. It may be necessary to visit the family's locality of residence to better assess these developments.

©1997 L. Mendola

Genealogical Research Conditions in Italy

While much has been published regarding Italian genealogical records, very little has been made known about the conditions which may have an effect --positive or negative-- on your Italian family history project. The following insights, based on many years of experience in Italy, pertain to factors that have very little to do with Italian genealogy per se, but involve vast cultural differences that influence archival access, documentation and research progress. Research conducted in Italian records (such as microfilms) outside Italy does not bring the researcher into direct contact with these factors. However, the researcher who deals directly with those responsible for Italian records retained in Italy will probably encounter challenging conditions at some point. These involve, among others, factors such as negotiation for archival access, apathetic attitudes on the part of civil or church officials, and the lengthy delays imposed by these issues.

Because the few professional genealogists working in Italy frequently encounter such difficulties, it is occasionally necessary to advise a client of these matters. Typically, the English-speaking Italian descendant who commissions or conducts Italian genealogical research is simply unaware of the way state bureaucracy, governmental offices and the Roman Catholic Church function in Italy. In reality, these Italian institutions differ considerably from their counterparts in North America, Australia or even the United Kingdom. Despite perceptions fostered by the informational exchange made possible today by such means of communication as rapid travel, fax machines, the internet and CNN, Italy is not an American state where a different language happens to be spoken-regardless of the extent to which popular culture may attempt to convince us that all societies are essentially the same. The visitor to Italy who ventures far beyond the business suite or tourist trail will discover numerous cultural differences that can affect a genealogical research project. Two everyday examples described here will demonstrate that these differences are not limited to research procedures.

Italians traditionally approach tasks in a lineal manner, wishing to complete one activity before beginning another. This differs from the American and British approach, in which somebody might engage in several tasks at the same time, eventually completing each. In an Italian clothing store, a clerk might tend to the needs of the first customer to arrive, continuing to assist him or her even though another customer in need of assistance is waiting to be fitted. While an English clerk might excuse himself from the first task, at least for a moment, the Italian clerk might consider it rude to interrupt the first customer simply to ascertain the needs of another who arrived later. The implications are obvious; the second customer may have to wait for service.

Likewise, a manager working in his office on Friday might delay answering Thursday's correspondence while he tends to Tuesday's, the priority of each being ascribed as much according to time of arrival as to actual importance. This principle is frustrating when applied to such services as postal deliveries, which in Italy are notoriously unreliable.

The casual visitor to Rome or Florence might not encounter the attitudes described above, and international corporations based in Italy employ a more "American" strategy of scheduling. However, genealogical research is not conducted in a tourist or commercial environment, but rather in state archives, small town vital statistics offices, or old parish churches where traditional attitudes are still a fact of life.

Two customs are particularly alien to those outside Italy. One involves the offering of funds in compensation for such purely voluntary ("unofficial") favors as access provided to a private archive; Catholic parochial archives are "private" and a discreet but generous offering is usually expected to a smaller parish in return for archival access. Another practice is the "recommendation," which involves a person's having been referred by somebody known to the official whose assistance is sought. Both customs are often required by aged Southern pastors, whereas public officials at state archives would be offended by such gestures. This is not "bribery" or "nepotism;" in fact both practices --offerings and recommendations-- date from the Middle Ages, when parochial churches were patronized by local aristocratic families. (Thus the notation "offering to facilitate parochial archival access" in the expense section of a client's invoice.) These are typical examples of traditional Italian social practices which foreigners sometimes view as "corrupt." Conversely, Italians cast a suspicious eye toward certain American practices which seem corrupt to Europeans-large political campaign contributions and high university tuitions rank among these.

Before considering some particular circumstances, it is worth mentioning that church and state (governmental) entities in Italy are not involved in the pursuit of genealogical research. That simply isn't their job. In general, they do not share the genealogist's zeal to discover historical information, and they are not in any way obligated to assist him in this pursuit, to reply to his requests, or to allow him access to the necessary records. This means that success in this field depends in large measure upon whether the individuals responsible for the relevant archival materials are cooperative. Bewildered by the growing foreign interest in Italian genealogical information, and inundated by requests for free assistance, more and more clerical and civil officials are becoming less and less cooperative, and it should be remembered that there are more immediate demands upon their time; municipal offices are understaffed and there is a dearth of priests in Italy, as elsewhere. Even scheduling an appointment to research is often difficult.

Postal Requests for Certificates. In many cases, especially where a precise name is provided and an exact date is known, a vital statistics official or pastor will reply to a request made by mail for one or two certificates of baptism, birth, marriage, etc. In other cases, repeated requests or a query by telephone will be necessary in order to receive a response. This is one of the reasons for which professional genealogists charge what seem like inflated rates for this service. Despite what a few "professional" genealogists may imply, neither an overworked vital statistics official nor a busy pastor is legally obligated to respond to such a request; indeed, rigid privacy laws preclude the former from responding to certain requests made by third parties relating to persons who may still be living.

Parochial Archives. Parochial archives contain information which in some cases might facilitate advancing a lineage into the 1400s; the earliest civil (vital statistics) records in Italy date only from the early 1800s, and census records provide only secondary information. Although pastors will sometimes allow direct access to the parochial archives in their care, they are not obligated to do so. A pastor may require his bishop's authorization before permitting a genealogist archival consultation. Even then, he might not permit the researcher to consult registers directly. There are more dioceses in Italy than there are provinces, and bishops exercise ultimate authority over the parishes in their diocesan jurisdictions. In most instances, there are no alternative sources for the information contained in parochial archives, and most of these archival records will never be microfilmed by the LDS Church (Mormons) or the Italian state. For religious reasons, the Mormons are not generally allowed access to Catholic parochial records in Italy. (This results from an order issued by the Catholic Conference of Italian Bishops a few years ago.) Obtaining parochial archival access is quite time-consuming and often complicated, and may be influenced by a pastor's negative experience with discourteous amateur researchers. In some cases, a year or two can pass before a diocesan bishop decides to grant archival access for research purposes. This can impose a considerable-and frustrating-delay in completion of certain projects, for which a client might wait as long as two years or more. Often-especially for periods before 1800-the information available in parochial records simply does not exist elsewhere.

Photocopies and Certificates. It is often possible to obtain photocopies of at least some source documents. However, pastors and other officials may prohibit photocopying, and some are reluctant to issue certificates to the researcher who requests a dozen or more "proofs" of acts and dates. Photocopiers are often unavailable, and may contribute to the destruction of priceless records; photography with digital cameras and photocopying with portable scanner-copiers might not be permitted. Increasingly, therefore, genealogists provide page and reference numbers in lieu of certificates and photocopies.

Time. As you may have inferred, the greatest difficulty posed by a genealogical research project conducted in Italy relates to time. When records exist, profound lineages can be established. Yet, the delays imposed by bureaucracy in matters involving genealogical research are formidable even under the best of circumstances. Patience is a virtue well-suited to this field.

©1996 L. Mendola